The role of lay Catholics in the Church according to the teaching of Assignment

The role of lay Catholics in the Church according to the teaching of the Second Vatican Council - Assignment Example Recent measures and initiatives within the Catholic church, particularly those designed in reenergizing Catholicism as a religion amidst modernity and secularization, were those concerning the increase in engagement and involvement of its lay members. This has been the fundamental issue addressed by the Second Vatican Council that took place from 1959 to 1965. The Council was able to draft and issue several documents, which would supposedly turn the tide for Catholicism during this contemporary age. These documents introduced and emphasized the concept of the â€Å"people of God† when its predecessor stressed on the role of the Pope. This move by Church authorities is increasingly seen as an attempt for the organization to be continuously significant amidst several developments that undermine Catholicism across the globe. This paper will specifically examine the role of the laity or the Lumen Gentium as outlined by the Second Vatican Council and how it is expected to develop l ater on. Background It is important to underscore that in the early days of Christianity, the laity has played an important role in the affairs of the church. According to Walsh (2005), the laity was not only consulted on important matters, because they also take part in electing bishops and in choosing priests. (p66) This role was eventually scrapped as the laity came to be merely defined as those that are subjected under the Catholic organization’s authority and representatives of the religion in secular affairs such as in business, politics and so forth. As the Catholic organization became more structured and the system more sophisticated governance and policymaking, and most of the organizational activities, policies and measures were administered by the clergy. By the time the First Vatican Council issued its codes and rules, the â€Å"Catholic action† referred to as the role to be played by the lay people were strictly confined to participation in Church-led init iatives. For instance, Pope Pius X declared that â€Å"the one duty of the multitude is to allow themselves to be led, and like a docile flock, to follow the Pastors.† (Pope 2004, p6) What this means is that while the laity is expected to be proactive, their actions must only be in support of the ordained and that they do not have clear and specific missions of their own, say, in evangelization. With the onset of the modern age, however, the clergy again began to turn to the laity as the Church is forced to deal with dwindling membership and enthusiasm from among its ranks. It addition, it has been struggling with finding its own identity and significance in a period of drastic changes across the world. The premise of the current Catholic attitude is that the Church must be viewed as â€Å"a community of faith where all the baptized bear responsibility for placing their individual gifts at the service of all.† (Gubish, Jenny and McGannon 2001, pii) The pattern of the n ew strategy reflects an attempt at a deeper and more potent evangelization by having the laity live out their lives according to the values and teachings of the Catholic Church. In recent years lay people have taken on great many administrative roles, and although Church law forbids them to have ‘jurisdiction’, such as a role in administration, they are involved in decision-making from parish level upwards which is often pretty indistinguishable from governance. (Walsh, p66) Laity in the Second Vatican Council According to the Second Vatican Council, the role of the laity is extremely important, explaining that: Inserted as they are in the Mystical Body of Christ by baptism and strengthened by the power of the Holy Spirit in confirmation, it is by the Lord himself that they are assigned to the apostolate†¦ The apostolate is lived in faith, hope and charity poured out by the Holy Spirit into the hearts of all members of the Church. (Dajczer 2000, p65) The

Why Psychologist use the scientific method Essay Example for Free

Why Psychologist use the scientific method Essay The scientific method makes use of a wide range of approaches and is a perspective that is seen better as an overall rather than use of single specific method. The already adopted scientific method initially was founded on the positivism concept. This included the search for descriptive general laws, which natural phenomena could be predicted with. Scientists were able to control the phenomena occurrences once there was possibility of the predictions. Subsequently, the underlying theories and explanations were developed by the scientists. Despite the change that has occurred on the positivist approach, the redefinition of the philosophical science is underway. The basement premises on which it was founded still continue to be on the current research mainstream. One of the major scientific approach requisite is the falsifiability. A theory is termed as been scientific if in its contents are predictions, which can either be falsely or truly demonstrated. Critically, scientific method has been argued to depend on empiricism, that is, data and observation collection (Mayer, 1985, pp. 42) Hypothetical inductive method is commonly involved in the main scientific method. In this, a scientist will begin with a based hypothesis on theory or insight and observation. A hypothesis is said to be statement of tentative belief that is based on judgment of expert researcher. The hypothesis should be subjected to falsification. This is to mean that the scientific researcher must be set up in a way such that the he/she has the ability to make logical conclusion that the hypothesis is either true or false. In many cases, projects of research may give the scientist a room to reject or accept the hypothesis and this will take one for more questions on research (Barker, 2000, pp. 82). Psychologist on their case have developed the interest and employed scientific method in all their researches. They have actually made the use of various scientific steps or approaches. The steps that psychologist use in their research are: identification of the problem and the hypothesis formulation, designing of the experiment under the help of the independent and dependent variables, experimental performance by use of the control group and the experimental group, hypothesis evaluation, that is, replication of data and hypothesis correction, and lastly is the communication of the results. If a researcher effectively follows the above steps, his or her experimental results will be reliable and valid. Some details in relation to the above stated steps are discussed below. In the process of identifying the problem, the psychologist must be having a good idea of the identified problem. He must also be in a position to make intelligent guesses concerning the problem, that is, come up with hypothesis. The problem at hand should imply a theory under which it can be based on the manner that the resulting solution to the problem can rhyme with the existing theories (Nagel Mill, 1996, pp. 2). Some of the scientific methods employed by psychologists include the following. Firstly, are the controlled experiments in performance of the experiments. In this method, it allows the researcher to establish the relationship between the cause and the effects. The experimenter in this method must manipulate one of the variables as the other variable is measured. The variable that is manipulated in this method is known as the independent variable, while the variable being measured is the dependent variable. The extraneous variable helps in manipulation by minimizing it as opposed to other kind of factors. For the true experiment, there is usually the experimental group and the control group. The experimental groups get the treatment that is designed for the study while the control group to the experimental group is identically treated with exceptional treatment of the experiment. By random assignment subjects are therefore assigned to each experimental group. The second method is the correlation method. This one exposes the relations that are predictable among given variables which are not within the experimenter’s control. The direction and the strength of the two variable relationship is referred to as correlation coefficients. In this method, it is important to note the correlation does not imply causation. Thirdly are the case studies. This method looks deeply on to a single individual study. Fourthly is the archival approach. They usually make the use records of novel, existing information and documents. Additionally, it may involve the use naturalistic observation. Under this method near natural or natural conditions are used to explore the population (Mayer, 1985, pp. 47). Elsewhere, the experimental process may involve the case histories method. This method describes the unusual conditions or person under study. The last method is the use of questionnaires and surveys about attitudes and opinions. Under survey, the attitude and opinions are based on response of the person on predetermined specific questions. Adequate and carefully determined sample on which the questions are based must be used (Peterson Tremblay, 1999, pp. 23). Due to the fact that scientific method works with the research approach rather than the research content, disciplines are not termed as scientific due to their content but because of their observation and data dependency, ideas of their falsifiability and the testing of the hypothesis. Therefore, scientific research legally involves the study of the intelligence, attitudes and other human behaviors which are complex. Despite the fact that the tools psychologists uses to measure the behavior of human may not give similar degree of precision like the one given by other sciences, it may not be precise to establish the scientific discipline status but rather the mechanism by which ideas will be tested and generated (Wolfe, 1992, pp. 206). When a researcher repeats the work that was done by another researcher, this may lead the research to be replicated, that is, the researchers must get the same results of a similar research done by the other researchers. This is a quality of scientific research that must exist. In reporting on their findings of the research, psychologist tries to give explanations and descriptions concerning how their discoveries have been made. On a similar note, other psychological researchers who carry out the same study must replicate on the previous results got by the other psychological researcher. After a research is done and replication is observed, psychologists will come up with a theory and translate it into hypothesis that is precise (Peterson Tremblay, 1999, pp. 9). When conducting a research, psychologists usually use operational definitions to assists in definition of concepts which are of interest. The term sampling is often used to describe the process of coming up with few number of the subjects of study out of the big population. The sampling procedures are used because it is not possible or practicable in the whole population to study all the subjects. There are different kinds of the samples that psychologists might use in relation to the kind of the study they are carrying out. These include: representative sample, convenience sample, random sample, and cross culture sample. The cross culture sample is used to have the external validity improved. One major drawback in the use of sampling method by the psychologist is that it tends to be biased at times. The psychologist researcher may lead to what we call experimenter bias when making the use of sampling procedures. The experimenter bias will result in the case where the researcher distorts the results or the procedures of experiment in study in which relation to the outcomes are known. Blinding procedures conceals the experimental hypothesis when used from the subject and this in most cases is referred to as single blind, while from the experiment and the subject are referred to as double blind (Wolfe, 1992, pp. 187). In their data analysis, psychologist normally uses the following measures to analyze their data. Firstly, the descriptive statistics are the mathematical summaries of the research results. Under descriptive statistics, measures of the central tendencies for a normal distribution are employed. These measures include the mean, median and the mode. Secondly are the measures of variation. This one determines the variation of the scores around the measures of the central tendencies. The measures of variations include the standard deviation and the range. Thirdly is the inferential statistics. This comes up with a statement about a set of given scores (Porterfield, 1999, pp. 82). The use of scientific method by the psychologists has been of great help to the world of business today. The application of research methodology to the world of commerce, business and organisations functions, organisational and industrial psychology looks on various degrees of the customers, workforce, and consumer. This will involve issues such as psychology of training, recruitment, job satisfaction, appraisal, stress management at work. All these factors assist in improving the performance and productivity of the business or the organisation. Psychological skills are employed to select the best qualified candidate during the interview process. This is of great help to the business since the selected candidate will effectively and efficiently deliver the organisational goals and objectives since he or she has the necessary and the required ability. For the new recruited staffs, they must undergo some training in relation to the expected duties and responsibility they have to accomplish in the organisation. They must be prepared psychologically how they should approach some of the duties and responsibilities at workplace and also how they can use such skills to meet the customers’ satisfaction. Psychological skills are also of benefit to any organisation in its application to manage stress that may have affected one of the staff members. In any organisation, stress is an expected situation and if not well handled may mess up the business activities, leading to poor performance. For this reason, organisations have gone ahead and employed psychologists who can effectively handle the matter. Psychologists have also worked on interaction with machines, product designs, software, sales, marketing, and advertisements so as to help in safety, functionality and appeal of the organisation. During the training of the staffs of an organization especially in the department of the sales and the marketing, this really require good impacting of the psychological skills to the staff in this department. For one to convince consumers to consume products of a given organisation, high level of psychological skills is required. It is in the same department or field where to understand the consumer needs psychological skills which have resulted to the employment of scientific method of research in collecting adequate data about the market and functional parameters of the organisation. By the use of such skills, one will be able to know which product needs to be improved or which has lost it market value. Doing all these help to expand and maintain the market share of the organisation (Wolfe, 1992, pp. 204).

Indian Civilization Essay

Indian Civilization Essay Introduction India civilization begins from riverbanks which is the Indus river and the Ganges river. India derives its name from the Indus river. Knowledge of Indian civilization has come from two leading cities: Mohenjo Daro and Harappa. These cities are carefully planned where they had wide, straight streets lined with brick houses. These cities had elaborate drainage and sewer systems. Achievements in science and technology of ancient India are divided into few sub parts such as mathematics, astronomy, list of Indian inventions, etc. The history of science and technology in India begins with prehistoric human activity at Mehrgarh (known as Pakistan in present-day) and continues through the Indus Valley Civilization to early states and empires. The British colonial rule introduced western education in India in its efforts to give rise to a native class of civil servants, exposed a number of Indians to foreign institutes of higher learning. Following independence, science and technology in the Republic of India has included automobile engineering, information technology, communications as well as space, polar, and nuclear sciences. The earliest evidence of technological progress in the Indian subcontinent is to be found in the remains of the Harappan civilization (4000-3000 BC). Archaeological remains point to the existence of well-planned urban centres which is orderly fashion along with roads and drainage systems complementing them. The drainage systems were particularly remarkable for the times since they were built underground and were constructed in a manner to allow for regular cleaning. Smaller drains from private homes connected to the larger public drains. Larger private dwellings (flats) were constantly multi-storied and all homes were constructed from standardized fired bricks and provided for separate cooking areas and toilets. Storage facilities for grain and goods for trade were built as were public baths and other buildings intended for various public functions. Urban centres were often planned near riverside or sea-ports. Accurate weights and measures were in use and ports such as Lothal were developed as export centres of early manufactured products from smelted copper and bronze. Kilns (oven for burning) for smelting copper blocks and casting tools were in existence as were metal tools such as curved or circular saws, pierced needles and most significantly, bronze drills with twisted grooves. The drill enabled the production of items with unparalleled precision for the times and could be regarded as an ancient precursor of the modern machine tool. There is also evidence of planned irrigation systems and it appears that fire and flood control measures to protect farms and villages were also in place. Artisans made use of the wheel and clay pottery was decorated in a variety of colours and designs. Cotton was grown and used to produce textiles. Urban centres in the Harappan region traded with each other as well as with counterparts in Babylon, the Persian Gulf, Egypt and possibly the Mediterranean. The span of the Harappan civilization was quite extensive, and included much of modern Sindh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab and Western UP. But prior to its disappearance, there is also evidence of considerable social decay and disintegration. Excavations from the later phases of the Harappan civilization suggest that population pressures led to greater anarchy in building construction. Urban dwellings became smaller and settlements became more unplanned indicating a breakdown of social practices and structures that promoted urban regulations and enforced construction codes. Between 1800 and 1700 BCE, civilization on the Indus Plain vanished. The degeneration of these people is unknown. One suspected cause is a shift in the Indus River. Another is that people dammed the water along the lower portion of the Indus River without realizing the consequences such as flooding up river. Another suspected cause is a decline in rainfall. Agriculture declined and people abandoned the cities in search of food. Later, a few people of a different culture settled in some of the abandoned cities, in what archaeologists call a squatter period. Then the squatters disappeared. Knowledge of the Mohenjo-daro and Harappa civilization died until archaeologists discovered the civilization in the mid-19th century. From complex Mohenjo-daro and Harappan towns to Delhis Qutub Minar, Indias indigenous technologies were very sophisticated. They included the design and planning of water supply, traffic flow, natural air conditioning, complex stone work, and construction engineering. In forthcoming sections, we are going to discuss in detail about the ancient Indias civilization and their contributions towards science and technology in the present world. Indians Contribution towards Mathematics In the period of 400 AD to 1200 AD, important contributions were made by scholars like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta and Bhaskara II. The decimal number system that we are using today was first recorded in Indian mathematics. Indian mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the concept of zero as a number, negative numbers, arithmetic, trigonometry and algebra formulae. Some of the areas of mathematics studied in ancient and medieval India includes Arithmetic (decimal system, negative numbers, zeros, floating point numbers, number theory, infinity, transfinite numbers, irrational numbers), Geometry (square roots, cube roots, Pythagorean triples, transformation, Pascals triangle), Algebra (quadratic equations, qubic equations and quartic/biquadratic equations), Mathematical logic (formal grammars, formal language theory, the Panini-Backus form, recursion), General mathematics (Fibonacci numbers, earliest forms of Morse code, logarithms, indices, algorithms, algorism) and Trigonometry (trigonometric functions, trigonometric series). There are some evidences showing the application of mathematics by ancient Indians. Excavations at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and other sites of the Indus Valley Civilization have uncovered evidence of the use of practical mathematics. Those people manufactured bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, considered favourable for the stability of a brick structure. They used a standardized system of weights based on few ratios like 1/20, 1/10, 1/5 and etc. with the unit weight equalling approximately 28 grams. They mass produced weights in regular geometrical shapes which included hexahedra, barrels, cones and cylinders, thereby demonstrating knowledge of basic geometry. The inhabitants of Indus civilization also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler (the Mohenjo-daro ruler) whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length. Indians Contribution towards Constructions Field The Indus-Sarasvati (Harappan) Civilization was the worlds first to build planned towns with underground drainage, civil sanitation, hydraulic engineering, and air-cooling architecture. Weights and measurements were standardized and oven-baked bricks were invented in India using these guidelines. There are many pioneering (first to explore new ideas/method) items of civil engineering such as drainage systems for water (open and closed), irrigation (water supply) systems, river dams, water storage tanks carved out of rock, granaries with ducts and platforms, moats (wide water channel dug surrounding a place), middle-class style homes with private bathrooms and drainage and even a dockyard (place to repair ships). There is evidence of stairs for multiple-storied buildings. Many towns have separate citadels (military stronghold); strongly fortified upper and lower towns. There are separate worker quarters near copper furnaces (place to heat material at very high temperature). Indians also pioneered many engineering tools for construction, surgery, warfare, etc. This includes the hollow drill, the true saw and the needle with the hole on its pointed end. Indians Contribution through Usage of Materials Since iron can be a secondary product of copper technology, its likely to be origin from India because copper was a well-known technology in many parts of ancient India. A smelting furnace dated 800 BCE is found in Naikund (Maharashtra), India. Recent discoveries reveal that iron was known in the Ganga valley. The Indian wootz steel[1] was very popular in Persian courts for making swords. Rust-free steel was an Indian invention and remained as an Indian skill for centuries. Delhis famous iron pillar, dated 402 CE is considered a metallurgical wonder and shows a very few signs of rust. The famous Damascus steel swords were made from Indian steel imported by Europeans. The acclaimed Sheffield steel in UK was Indian crucible steel. The best brains of European science worked for decades to learn to reverse-engineer how Indians made crucible steel and in this process, modern alloy design and physical metallurgy was developed in Europe. Another important Indian contribution to metallurgy was in the isolation, distillation and use of zinc. From natural sources, zinc content in alloys such as brass can go no higher than 28 per cent. A major breakthrough in the history of metallurgy was Indias discovery of zinc distillation whereby the metal was vaporized and then condensed back into pure metal. Brass in Taxashila has been dated from third century BCE to fifth century CE. The earliest confirmed evidence of zinc smelting by distillation is Zawar. This is the earliest place for zinc smelting and production of metallic zinc by distillation process anywhere in the world. Europeans learnt it for the first time in 1743, when expertise was transferred from India. Until then, India had been exporting pure zinc for centuries on an industrial scale. At archaeological sites in Rajasthan, retorts[2] used for the distillation are found in very large numbers even today. Once zinc had become separated into a pure metal, alloys could be made with the required zinc component to provide the required properties. For instance, strength and durability increase with higher zinc component. In addition, copper alloys look like gold when the zinc component is higher than 28 per cent. Most early brass objects found in other countries had less than 10 per cent zinc component, and, therefore, these were not based on zinc distillation technology. It was in Zawar, Rajasthan, where this first became industrialized on a large scale. Zinc mines have been found in Dariba (11th century BCE), Agucha (sixth century BCE) and Zawar (fifth century BCE). These mines have pots and other manufacturing tools of these dates, but the mining could be even older. Unsurprisingly, developments in metallurgy also had their impact on artillery (large guns) production. According to A. Rahman (Science in Medieval India), by the 16th century, the heaviest guns in the world were being cast in India and a variety of weapons were being manufactured in the subcontinent. The Jaigarh cannon factory was one of Indias best and before the crucial battle of 1857, the Jaipur Rajputs laid claim to owning Asias largest cannon. Yet, none of the Rajput cannons were ever used to confront the British who succeeded in conquering the sub-continent without ever having to fight against the countrys best equipped armies, thus demonstrating that technological progress is not an end in itself. Indians Contribution through Usage of Nature Resources Many interesting findings have recently come out about the way forests and trees were managed by each village and how a careful method was applied to harvest medicines, firewood and building material in accordance with natural renewal rates. Discoveries concerning the manufacture and application of natural and artificial dyes were first implemented by Indians. Block printing and dye and other textile-dyeing techniques were popularized. The use of mordants[3] in colour-fast dyeing of textiles became known as did the knowledge of lacquers that could be applied to wood or leather. Paints that could be used on different building materials were developed and elaborate techniques were employed to prevent fading and loss of colour during the heavy monsoons. Indian farmers developed non-chemical, eco-friendly pesticides and fertilizers that have modern applications. These traditional pesticides have been recently revived in India with excellent results, replacing Union Carbides[4] products in certain markets. Crop rotation and soil technology that has been passed down for thousands of years are traditional practices which India pioneered. Historically, Indias agricultural production was large and sustained a huge population compared to other parts of the world. Surpluses (excess of production/supply) were stored for use in a drought year. But the British turned this industry into a cash cow, exporting very large amounts of grain even during food shortages. This caused tens of millions of Indians to die of starvation in the 19th century. Given the importance of fresh water in India, it is no surprise that the technologies to manage water resources were highly advanced from Harappan times onwards. For example, in Gujarat, Chandragupta built the Sudarshan Lake in late 4th century BCE, and was later repaired in 150 BCE by his grandson. Bhopals Raja Bhoj Lake, built in 1014-1053, is so massive that it shows up in satellite images. The Vijayanagar Empire built such a large lake in 14th 15th century CE that it has more construction material than the Great Wall of China. Scientists estimate there were 1.3 million man-made water lakes and ponds across India, some as large as 250 square miles. These are now being rediscovered using satellite imagery. These enabled rain water to be harvested and used for irrigation, drinking, etc. till the following years rainfall. Indians Contribution towards Medical Field Genuine cures were listed with unscientific practices without clear distinction. But during the rational period in India the emphasis on the scientific method led to a much greater level of accuracy with respect to the efficacy of different medicines and medical procedures. The more accurately the Indian medical practitioner was able to observe reality, understand bodily functions and test the efficacy of popular medical techniques, the more successful were the prescribed cures. Dissection of corpses and careful monitoring of different diseases was an important component in the study and practice of medicine. With greater success in treatment came greater confidence and allowed medical practitioners to conduct surgical procedures using a variety of surgical tools though its unsophisticated in comparison to modern surgical equipment. Procedures for inducing unconsciousness or numbing body parts that were to be operated on were required and developed. Tools for excision, incision, puncturing, probing, organ or part extraction, fluid drainage, bloodletting, suturing and cauterization were developed. Various types of bandages and ointments were used as were basic procedures for ensuring cleanliness and limiting contamination. The caesarian section was known, bone-setting reached a high degree of skill, and plastic surgery developed far beyond anything known elsewhere at the time. Indian surgeons also became proficient at the repair of noses, ears and lips lost or injured in battle or by judicially mandated mutilation. Traditional cataract surgery was performed with a special tool called the Jabamukhi Salaka, a curved needle used to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of the field of vision. Brahmanic hospitals were established in what is now Sri Lanka as early as 431 BCE. Ashoka also established a chain of hospitals throughout the Mauryan empire by 230 BCE. While all ancient societies cherished and admired the skills of the medical practitioner, it was the more determined adoption of the scientific approach that enabled Indian medicine to make a quantum leap over the older medical systems of the time. Progress in medicine also led to developments in chemistry and chemical technologies. The manufacture of alkaline substances, medicinal powders, ointments and liquids was systematized, as were chemical processes relating to the manufacture of glass. Advances in food processing (such as manufacture of sugar, condiments and edible oils) took place as did the manufacture of personal hygiene products and beauty aids (such as shampoos, deodorizers, perfumes and cosmetics). Indians Contribution towards Shipping, Trading, Geography and Astronomy Shipbuilding was one of Indias major export industries until the British destroy it and officially prohibited it. Middle Age Arab sailors purchased their boats in India. The Portuguese also continued to get their boats from India and not Europe. Some of the worlds largest and most sophisticated ships were built in India and China. There is also extensive archival material on the Indian Ocean trade in Greek, Roman, and Southeast Asian sources. Indians are well known as traders of items like diamond, brass ornaments, gun powders, metal made swords, iron made indigo dye, copper, bronze, wootz steel, textiles, etc. Archaeologists have found geometric compasses which linear scales made of ivory. The compass and other navigation tools were already in use in the Indian Ocean long before Europe. Using their expertise in the science of seafaring, Indians participated in the earliest-known ocean-based trading system. Few people know that an Indian naval pilot, named Kanha, was hired by Vasco da Gama to captain his ships and take him to India. Deep-sea shipping had existed in India as Indian ships had been sailing to islands such as the Andamans, Lakshdweep and Maldives around 2,000 years ago. Kautilya (sacred scripture) which describes the times that are good and bad for seafaring was used as guidance. Astronomy is one area which has fascinated all mankind from the beginnings of history. The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedas (religious literature of India). In India, the first references to astronomy are to be found in the Rig Veda which is dated around 2000 B.C. Vedic Aryans in fact deified (worshipped) the Sun, Stars and Comets. Indians also prepared lunar calendars which were based on lunar cycle. This type of calendar (lunar calendar) is still in use today. According to Sarma (2008): One finds in the Rigveda, intelligent speculations about the genesis (origin) of the universe from nonexistence (non-real), the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting earth, and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary (in leap years) month. Famous mathematician and astronomer, Aryabhata gave some great calculation regarding space that is almost correct. He presented his theory of heliostat, which means that planets revolve around the sun. This theory was presented about a millennium before than the theory presented by Galileo. In 20th century, world famous S Chandrashekhar presented his theory regarding black holes. References [1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_valley_civilization [2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Indian_science_and_technology [3] Aspects of Ancient Indian Technology H.C. Bhardwaj [4] An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology edited by A.Ghosh Volume I [5] http://yomi.mobi/egate/History_of_Indian_science_and_technology/73/a [6] http://dont-forget-your-passport.blogspot.com/2009/12/ancient-indias-contribution-to-science.html [7] http://members.tripod.com/~INDIA_RESOURCE/technology.htm [8] http://www.indianchild.com/harappa.htm [9] http://www.archaeolink.com/ancient_indus%20and%20indian%20civilizations_ancient_india.htm [10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_inventions [1] an exceptional grade of iron ore steel first made in southern and south central India and Sri Lanka perhaps as early as 300 BC [2] a container used in distilling liquids [3] combines with dye and fixes it in material [4] one of the oldest chemical and polymer companies in the United States

Comparison Between Merchant of Venice and The Bible Essay -- William S

SHYLOCK: What says that fool of Hagar's offspring, ha? The Biblical Story Genesis 16: 1-16 1 Now Sarai Abramï ¿ ½s wife bare him no children, and she had a maid an Egyptian, Hagar by name. 2 And Sarai said unto Abram, Behold now, the Lord hath restrained me from child bearing. I pray thee go in unto my maid: it may be that I shall receive a child by her. And Abram obeyed the voice of Sarai. 3 Then Sarai Abramï ¿ ½s wife took Hagar her maid the Egyptian, after Abram had dwelled ten years in the land of Canaan, and gave her to her husband Abram for his wife. 4 And he went in unto Hagar, and she conceived. and when she saw that she had conceived, her dame was despised in her eyes. 5 Then Sarai said to Abram, Thou doest me wrong. I have given my maid into thy bosom, and she seeth that she hath conceived, and I am despised in her eyes: the Lord judge between me and thee. 6 Then Abram said to Sarai, Behold, thy maid is in thine hand: do with her as it pleaseth thee. Then Sarai dealt roughly with her: wherefore she fled from her. 7 But the Angel of the Lord found her beside a fountain of water in the wilderness by the fountain in the way to Shur, 8 And he said, Hagar Saraiï ¿ ½s maid, whence comest thou? and whither wilt thou go? And she said, I flee from my dame Sarai. 9 Then the Angel of the Lord said to her, Return to thy dame, and humble thyself under her hands. 10 Again the Angel of the Lord said unto her, I will so greatly increase thy seed, that it shall not be numbered for multitude. 11 Also the Angel of the Lord said unto her, See, thou art with child, and shalt bear a son, and shalt call his name Ishmael: for the Lord hath heard thy tribulation. 12 And he shall be a wild man: his hand shall be against every man, and every m... ...tian: those who are "gentile" Christians (the vast majority) and those who are Jewish Christians (in other words, ethnic Jews who belong to the second category (above) of both "Jews" and "Christians." David was descended from Abraham through Abraham's great-grandson Judah, whose father was Jacob, and whose grandfather was Isaac. Judah was the fourth son of Jacob, who had twelve sons corresponding to the twelve tribes of Israel (actually, not quite, because Levi became a tribe without a land of its own (they were the assistants to the priests and lived in specific cities throughout the land), and Joseph's sons, Ephraim and Manasseh were given a double portion of the inheritance (both of them had their own tribe, in a way)). - Peter Gaultney Works Cited ï ¿ ½Ishmael.ï ¿ ½ Smithï ¿ ½s Bible Dictionary. April 5 2005. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/smith_w/bibledict.i.html?term=ishmael

Technology in Healthcare: Good or Bad

lI believe that technology is both good and bad in the healthcare field. With technology constantly changing, there is no end to what we can do. Technology allows us to use computers or computerized systems to collect, process, and store pertinent data. It also allows up to progress to the future with the machines we use in the healthcare field. Some of the upsides are better record keeping, data analysis, and convenient documentation which can provide more prompt medical billing. Patient security and safety is a concern with all advances in technology.After all, without the patients, what business would the healthcare field have? Technology via machines that are used are constantly progressing. These can be very good in the development of better machines to help to aide patients in better treatment and less lengthy hospital stays. There are downsides to technology in healthcare though. Let’s think for a minute. What causes errors in healthcare technology? Human error. This ca n be via inadequately trained, inexperienced, tired, or even cases where people don’t admit they made a mistake.How about faulty equipment or programming? If a machine or program is not running properly then it isn’t going to give the right results. One thing for sure is that there has to be constant monitoring and troubleshooting to maintain a safe environment for both the patient, the hospital or facility, and also for the companies who make the products we use in the technological aspect of healthcare. With technology being a definite for the future, I think it’s just a wait and see thing as to whether it ends up being better or worse.

LEMURS Essays - Lemurs, Ring-tailed Lemur, Ruffed Lemur, Dwarf Lemur

LEMURS Essays - Lemurs, Ring-tailed Lemur, Ruffed Lemur, Dwarf Lemur LEMURS TABLE OF CONTENTS FACTS ABOUT LEMURS3 DIFFERENT SPECIES OF LEMURS3-5 HISTORY AND THE LEMUR5 THE ENDANGERED LEMUR6 BIBLIOGRAPHY7 A lemur is a small, monkeylike animal that lives primarily in Madagascar. Their sizes range from about as big as a mouse to as large as a cat. They have a roundish head with a pointed muzzle and large eyes. Their fur is wooly and their legs are longer than their arms. They are nocturnal animals, feasting on mostly plants, small animals, insects and bark. The common enemies of lemurs are humans, the fossa and the banded gymnogene. There are 22 species of lemurs, ranging from the indri lemur, which is the largest lemur at almost 3 feet, to the mouse lemur, a 5 inch lemur that weighs about 2 ounces. The ring tailed lemur is a lemur with a 2 foot tail used to signal other groups of lemurs. They are the only lemurs that spend much time on the ground. They live in groups of up to 30. The ring tailed lemurs live in southern Madagascar. The colors of the ring tailed lemur are black and white. It's enemies are; large birds of prey and fossas. The aye-aye is an almost extinct lemur. It looks like a large cat with bat's ears, beaver's teeth, a middle finger that looks like a twig and huge eyes. It uses it's middle finger to dig for insects and comb its fur. The aye-aye lives on patches of coastland in Madagascar. They are a sleek brownish color. Its enemies are fossas. The indri is the largest lemur. There are many different species of indri. The avahi, verreaux sifaka, diademed sifaka and indris are all indris. They live all over Madagascar. They vary in color. The black lemur is in danger of extinction. One of its subspecies is already extinct. Its body is 16 inches long and its tail is 20 inches long. It can weigh up to five pounds and it lives in north and central Madagascar. It can be dark brown or black. Its enemies are the fossa and the banded gymnogene. There is another species of lemur that is called the brown lemur which is just like the black lemur except it is a little bit more of a brownish color. The mouse lemur is the smallest lemur. It is about the size of a mouse, but otherwise lemur-like. It lives all along the coast of Madagascar. It eats small fruits, blooms, leaves and insects. It's color is a light shade of brown. Owls and fossas are its enemies. There is two different kinds of mouse lemur, the lesser and the coqueral's. A smaller than average lemur, the weasel lemur, lives on the east and west parts of Madagascar. It has big eyes and a small muzzle. It eats mostly fruits and plants. It has a thick and wooly coat of fur and is a brownish maroon color. The enemies of the weasel lemur are owls and nocturnal birds of prey. The mongoose lemur is a very good climber and jumper. It is covered with silky brown fur, similar to a bear. Its enemies are the fossa and the banded gymnogene. Its tail is about twice the size of its body. It lives in northern Madagascar. The Rruffed lemur is a black and white lemur. Its fur is somewhat longer than other lemurs. It lives in families of 2-5 animals. It is a pretty large lemur, bigger than the black lemur. It lives in northeast Madagascar. The red-bellied lemur obviously got its name from its distinct red belly. Its enemies are the fossa and banded gymnogene. It lives in the rainforests of eastern Madagascar. Besides its belly, it is crestnut-brown. The gentle lemurs are a group of short legged, long tailed lemurs. They have long, soft fur and pug-like nostrils. Their enemies are ring tailed lemurs, banded gymnones, Madagascar Buzzards and death adders. They live on the east and west coasts of Madagascar. There are two kinds of gentle lemurs, the broad nosed and the grey. The dwarf lemur is about twice the size of the mouse lemur. Its enemies are owls and fossas. It lives all along the coast of Madagascar. One species of dwarf lemurs, the hairy eared dwarf lemur, is nearly extinct. There are five different kinds

The Guilt and Innocence of Monsieur Mersault †Literature Essay

The Guilt and Innocence of Monsieur Mersault – Literature Essay Free Online Research Papers The Guilt and Innocence of Monsieur Mersault Literature Essay Guilt and Innocence were mere feelings that mean nothing to an indifferent soul. Monsieur Mersault is doomed by his apparent guilty innocence. Many times tackled by feelings that are essential for one’s life, Mersault disregards all of them. Often he describes that his physical needs tend to come before his emotional ones. â€Å"My nature was that my physical needs often got in the way of my feelings.† Throughout the book he would describes much more and with more accuracy his physical needs, such as the weather, killing time at the prison and even about smoking cigarettes. His nature, fatalistically, became his doom. Innocence is a term that has many definitions, the one found most applicable would be; lack of knowledge or understanding. â€Å"I wasn’t familiar with all the procedures†¦I didn’t quite understand what happened next†. Its clear in this exert that Monsieur Mersault was not enlightened about what was going on in the trial and why the reporters were analyzing every breath he took. It was his nature; he was indifferent to how people felt about him, or even to how his case would proceed. We can observe that this innocence is becoming an enemy, since he does not understand his case and does not care about it. His lack of knowledge and interest often makes him loose track of what the prosecutor was saying making him much more susceptible to any of the prosecution’s questions. â€Å"For example, I got bored very quickly with the prosecutor’s speech† He had the innocence of being bored when the prosecutor was twisting his fate. He has a logical reasoning for being bored as â€Å"whatever interest you can get people to take in you doesn’t last very long†. Therefore, the prosecutor talked about his life, he evoked the right feelings in the jury, the emotional ones. He convinced them that with his â€Å"naivetà ©Ã¢â‚¬  he premeditated the shooting of the Arab. He caught Monsieur Mersault right where his guilty innocence screamed guilt. â€Å"I could feel how much I’d enjoy going for a walk if it hadn’t been for mama†. Nihilistic attitudes such wanting to enjoy a walk throughout the country on the day of your mother’s funeral contributed to the prosecutor’s point because we can see exactly how Mersault makes it clear his non-value for human existence. Mersault existentialist nature contributes much to lack of understanding of small but important things. Therefore, Camus builds the character of Mersault in this manner so we can try to understand The Absurd. Mersault, crashes w ith the absurd, he is a guilty-innocent person. This snowball kept rolling and impressing more people throughout his life, until it impressed the jury which gave his ultimatum. He was guilty. He was so benevolent and apathetic towards his feelings and everyone that in the end his own nature made him an enemy to himself. Like a hazard to himself he continued to not generate value for anything that any normal person would value. â€Å"Funeral tomorrow†¦ That doesn’t mean anything†. We can observe in this exert that Camus already starts the book emphasizing Mersault’s passiveness towards his moms funeral, which builds up into a deal of innocence in his trial that turns him into a guilty criminal. Ironically it makes sense, therefore it is absurd because he never did anything wrong, he did not kill the Arab intentionally and to live an nihilist life was his nature. Research Papers on The Guilt and Innocence of Monsieur Mersault - Literature EssayThe Spring and AutumnEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoThree Concepts of Psychodynamic19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalThe Hockey GameInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug Use